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Together, their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes. It is uncertain where the word 'Arapaho' came from. The Arapaho autonym is Hinono'eino or Inun-ina "our people" or "people of our own kind". They refer to their tribe as Hinono'eiteen Arapaho Nation. The Pawnee , Ute and other tribes also referred to them with names signifying "dog-eaters". The Northern Arapaho, who called themselves Nank'haanseine'nan or Nookhose'iinenno "white sage men" , were known as Baantcline'nan or Bo'oociinenno "red willow men" to the Southern Arapaho, whereas the latter were called by their northern kin Nawathi'neha or Noowunenno' "Southerners".

The Arapaho recognize five main divisions among their people, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct but cognate tribes. Through much of Arapaho history, each tribal nation maintained a separate ethnic identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies. Each spoke mutually intelligible dialects, which differed from Arapaho proper.

Dialectally, the Haa'ninin, Beesowuunenno', and Hinono'eino were closely related. In his classic ethnographic study, Alfred Kroeber identified these five nations from south to north:. Before their historic geo-political ethnogenesis, each tribal-nation had a principal headman. The exact date of the ethnic fusion or fission of each social division is not known. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the Beesowuunenno '. The different tribal-nations lived together and the Beesowuunenno ' have dispersed for at least years among the formerly distinct Arapaho tribal groups.

Only the Arapaho and Gros Ventre Atsina identified as separate tribal-nations. While living on the Great Plains, the Hinono'eino all Arapaho bands south of the Haa'ninin divided historically into two geopolitical social divisions:. The Arapaho language is currently spoken in two different dialects, and it is considered to be a member of the Algonquian language family. The number of fluent speakers of Northern Arapaho dwindles at , most living on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming, while the number of Southern Arapaho speakers is even more scarce, only a handful of people speak it, all advanced in age.

By producing audio and visual materials, they have provided ways for younger generations to learn the language.

They have matched this effort with a preschool immersion program and is offered all throughout grade school. However, the number of students that take the subject is wavering and those who learn typically only retain a selection of memorized vocabulary.

There is widespread interest in keeping the language alive for the Northern Arapaho, and their outlook remains positive in their endeavors to perpetuate the learning of Arapaho in schools and among their children and young people.

However, this attitude is often counteracted by the lack of true commitment and willingness to really learn and become fluent, underscored by a misunderstanding of its deep roots and purpose.

Most have lost interest in learning or maintaining it, and until recently, there were little to no efforts to preserve their dialect. There is a small number who have begun online courses conducted via video in an attempt to revitalize a desire to learn it, and popularity has increased over the past few years. Around 3, years ago, the ancestral Arapaho-speaking people Heeteinono'eino ' lived in the western Great Lakes region along the Red River Valley in what is classified as present-day Manitoba , Canada and Minnesota , United States.

They were numerous and powerful, having obtained guns from their French trading allies. The ancestors of the Arapaho people entered the Great Plains the western Great Lakes region sometime before During their early history on the plains, the Arapaho lived on the northern plains from the South Saskatchewan River in Canada south to Montana, Wyoming, and western South Dakota.

Before the Arapaho acquired horses, they used domestic dogs as pack animals to pull their travois. The Arapaho acquired horses in the early s from other tribes, which changed their way of life. They became nomadic people, using the horses as pack and riding animals. They could transport greater loads, and travel more easily by horseback to hunt more easily and widely, increasing their success in hunting on the Plains. Gradually, the Arapaho moved farther south, split into the closely allied Northern and Southern Arapaho, and established a large joint territory spanning land in southern Montana, most of Wyoming, the Nebraska Panhandle, central and eastern Colorado, western Oklahoma, and extreme western Kansas.

A large group of Arapaho split from the main tribe and became an independent people, commonly known as the Gros Ventre as named by the French or Atsina. The name Gros Ventre, meaning "Big Bellies" in French, was a misinterpretation of sign language between an Indian guide and French explorers.

Once established, the Arapaho began to expand on the plains through trade, warfare, and alliances with other plains tribes. Conflict with the allied Comanche and Kiowa ended in when the two large tribes made peace with the Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne and became their allies. Chief Little Raven was the most notable Arapaho chief; he helped mediate peace among the nomadic southern plains tribes and would retain his reputation as a peace chief throughout the Indian Wars and reservation period.

Along the upper Missouri River, the Arapaho actively traded with the farming villages of the Arikara , Mandan , and Hidatsa , trading meat and hides for corn , squash , and beans. The Arikara referred to the Arapaho as the "Colored Stone Village People ", possibly because gemstones from the Southwest were among the trade items.

The Hidatsa called them E-tah-leh or Ita-Iddi 'bison-path people' , referring to their hunting of bison. Conflict with Euro-American traders and explorers was limited at the time. The Arapaho freely entered various trading posts and trade fairs to exchange mostly bison hides and beaver furs for European goods such as firearms. The Arapaho frequently encountered fur traders in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, and the headwaters of the Platte and Arkansas.

They became well-known traders on the plains and bordering Rocky Mountains. The name Arapaho may have been derived from the Pawnee word Tirapihu or Larapihu , meaning "he buys or trades" or "traders". The Arapaho were a prominent trading group in the Great Plains region. By custom the Arapaho tattooed small circles on their bodies. The name Arapaho became widespread among the white traders.

A large part of Arapaho society was based around the warrior. Most young men sought this role. After adopting use of the horse, the Arapaho quickly became master horsemen and highly skilled at fighting on horseback. Warriors had larger roles than combat in the society. They were expected to keep peace among the camps, provide food and wealth for their families, and guard the camps from attacks.

Like other plains Indians, including their Cheyenne allies, the Arapaho have a number of distinct military societies. Each of the eight Arapaho military societies had their own unique initiation rites, pre- and post- battle ceremonies and songs, regalia, and style of combat. Unlike their Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota allies, the Arapaho military societies were age based.

Each age level had its own society for prestigious or promising warriors of the matching age. Warriors often painted their face and bodies with war paint, as well as their horses, for spiritual empowerment.

Each warrior created a unique design for the war paint which they often wore into battle. Feathers from birds, particularly eagle feathers, were also worn in battle as symbols of prestige and for reasons similar to war paint. Before setting out for war, the warriors organized into war parties. War parties were made up of individual warriors and a selected war chief.

The title of war chief must be earned through a specific number of acts of bravery in battle known as counting coup. Coups may include stealing horses while undetected, touching a living enemy, or stealing a gun from an enemy's grasp.

Arapaho warriors used a variety of weapons, including war-clubs, lances, knives, tomahawks, bows, shotguns, rifles, and pistols. They acquired guns through trade at trading posts or trade fairs, in addition to raiding soldiers or other tribes. Together with their allies, the Arapaho also fought with invading US soldiers, miners, and settlers across Arapaho territory and the territory of their allies.

Several skirmishes had ignited hatred from white settlers that lived in the area, and left Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes in constant fear of being attacked by American troops. For example, on April 12, , a rancher brought troops to attack a group of 15 warriors who had asked for reward from bringing his mules back to him. The warriors acted in self-defense and sent the troops running.

He also heard there were cattle head stolen from the government. Chivington "ordered troops to find and 'chastise' the 'Indians'. In an effort to establish peace, John Evans attempted to extend an offer of refuge and protection to "friendly" Indians.

However, these efforts were trampled by General Curtis' [16] military expedition against tribes between the Platte and Arkansas Rivers. By this point, both Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes thought that an all out war of extermination was about to rage against them, so they quickly fled, and Curtis and his men never met them.

Governor Evans desired to hold title to the resource-rich Denver-Boulder area. The government trust officials avoided Chief Left Hand, a linguistically gifted Southern Arapaho chief, when executing their treaty that transferred the title of the area away from Indian Trust. The local cavalry was stretched thin by the demands of the Civil War while Indian warriors, acting independently of Chief Left Hand, raided their supply lines.

A group of Arapaho and Cheyenne elders with women and children had been denied their traditional wintering grounds in Boulder by the cavalry and were ordered to come to Fort Lyon for food and protection or be considered hostile.

Chief Left Hand and his people got the message that only those Indians that reported to Fort Lyon would be considered peaceful and all others would be considered hostile and ordered killed. Confused, Chief Left Hand and his followers turned away and traveled a safe distance away from the fort to camp.

A traitor gave Colonel Chivington directions to the camp. He and his battalion stalked and attacked the camp early the next morning.

Rather than heroic, Colonel Chivington's efforts were considered a gross embarrassment to the Cavalry since he attacked peaceful elders, women, and children. Eugene Ridgely, a Cheyenne—Northern Arapaho artist, is credited with bringing to light the fact that Arapahos were among the victims of the massacre. In , Benjamin and Gail Ridgley organized a group of Northern Arapaho runners to run from Limon, Colorado , to Ethete, Wyoming , in memory of their ancestors who were forced to run for their lives after being attacked and pursued by Colonel Chivington and his battalion.

Their efforts will be recognized and remembered by the "Sand Creek Massacre" signs that appear along the roadways from Limon to Casper, Wyoming , and then to Ethete. The violence that ensued was deeply rooted in the Indian-hating by American settlers in the area.

Their perception was that "their nascent settlements were indeed surrounded by Indians", [20] and their inexperience in dealing with Indians was what sparked the Sand Creek Massacre. The events at Sand Creek sparked outrage among the Arapaho and Cheyenne, resulting in three decades of war between them and the United States.

Much of the hostilities took place in Colorado, leading to many of the events being referred to as part of the so-called Colorado War. Battles and hostilities elsewhere on the southern plains such as in Kansas and Texas are often included as part of the " Comanche Wars ". During the wars, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allies—the Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache—would participate in some battles alongside them.

The Lakota from the north came down into northern Colorado to help the Arapaho and Cheyenne there. The point of the raid was retaliation for the events at the Sand Creek Massacre months earlier. The battle was a decisive Indian victory, resulting in 14 soldiers and four civilians dead and probably no Indian casualties. The battle was another victory for the Indians, with 29 soldiers killed and at least eight Indian casualties. Those that did not sign the treaty were called "hostile" and were continually pursued by the US Army and their Indian scouts.

The battle was a US victory with around 35 warriors killed including Tall Bull and a further 17 captured. The soldiers suffered only a single casualty. The death of Tall Bull was a major loss for the Dog Soldiers.

Along the way, they participated in the Battle of Mud Springs , a minor incident in the Nebraska Panhandle involving a force of between and 1, Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors and US soldiers. The battle resulted in the capture of some army horses and a herd of several hundred cattle with a single US casualty.

William O. Collins, commander of the army forces, stated that pursuing the Indian forces any further through the dry Sand Hills area would be "injudicious and useless". Once in the area of the Powder River, the Arapaho noticed an increase in travelers moving along the established Bozeman trail, which led to the Montana goldfields. Settlers and miners traveling on the Bozeman Trail through the Powder River country were viewed as threats by the Indians as they were numerous and were often violent towards encountered Indians and competed for food along the trail.

The expedition was inconclusive with neither side gaining a definitive victory. The allied Indian forces mostly evaded the soldiers except for raids on their supplies which left most soldiers desperately under-equipped. Once located, Connor sent in soldiers with two howitzers and 40 Omaha and Winnebago and 30 Pawnee scouts, and marched toward the village that night.

Indian warriors acting as scouts for the US Army came from the Pawnee , Omaha , and Winnebago tribes who were traditional enemies of the Arapaho and their Cheyenne and Lakota allies. With mountain man Jim Bridger leading the forces, they charged the camp. The few warriors present at the camp put up a strong defense and covered the women and children as most escaped beyond the reach of the soldiers and Indian scouts.

Connor singled out four Winnebago, including chief Little Priest, plus North and 15 Pawnee for bravery. The Pawnee made off with horses from the camp's herd as payback for previous raids by the Arapaho. The Arapaho were not intimidated by the attack and launched a counterattack resulting in the Sawyers Fight where Arapaho warriors attacked a group of surveyors, resulting in three dead and no Arapaho losses.

The war was named after the prominent Oglala Lakota chief Red Cloud who led many followers into battle with the invading soldiers. The war was a response to the large number of miners and settlers passing through the Bozeman Trail , which was the fastest and easiest trail from Fort Laramie to the Montana goldfields.

The large number of miners and settlers competed directly with the Indians for resources such as food along the trail. The Battle involved Capt. William J. Fetterman who led a force of 79 soldiers and two civilians after a group of 10 Indian decoys planning on luring Fetterman's forces into an ambush.

The 10 decoys consisted of two Arapaho, two Cheyenne, and six Lakota. Fetterman was well known for his boastful nature and his inexperience fighting Indian warriors and despite orders to not pursue the decoys did so anyway. Jim Bridger , famous Mountain Man and guide to the soldiers stationed at Fort Laramie, commented on how the soldiers "don't know anything about fighting Indians". An old man was living with his son, his daughter and her husband, who was a great hunter.

The two brothers-in-law hunted every day one winter, but could not find any tracks. There was a great deal of snow, and the young husband made himself snowshoes. He passed through an unfrozen spring.

When he came home, his wife saw blood on his snowshoes. The young man sat with bowed head, afraid to look up. At last, the old man proposed to go to the spring with him.

The next day the father-in-law stripped two trees of their bark and pushed one strip into either end of the spring. Then he told the people to get ready to shoot. He pushed in a stick and called on a moose to come out. A doe appeared and after running a short distance was shot. Then they went to a bear spring.

A big black bear appeared, and the young man killed it. They had plenty of fat. The Arapaho, By Ditchfield. Arapaho Myth : Indian Mythology. Arapaho Flag Wikimedia Commons. Native Americans. Northern Arapaho. Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes. Arapaho Tribe. Arapaho Flag. Credit- Wikicommons. The Arapaho Tribe. Arapaho Youth. The World of the American Indian.